Anti-Submarine Warfare

Anti-submarine warfare (ASW, or in older form A/S) is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships, aircraft, or other submarines to find, track, and deter, damage, or destroy enemy submarines.

Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology, training, and experience. Sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting, then classifying, locating, and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW. To destroy submarines, both torpedos and naval mines are used, launched from air, surface, and underwater platforms. ASW also involves protecting friendly ships.
Contents

1 History
1.1 World War I
1.2 Inter-war period
1.3 World War II
1.3.1 Battle of the Atlantic
1.3.2 Mediterranean
1.3.3 Pacific Theatre
1.4 Post-war
2 Modern warfare
2.1 Anti-submarine warfare technologies
2.2 Weapons
2.3 Platforms
3 See also
4 References & notes
5 Further reading
6 External links

History

The first attacks on a ship by an underwater vehicle are generally believed to have been during the American Revolutionary War, using what would now be called a naval mine but what then was called a torpedo, though various attempts to build submarines had been made before this. The first self-propelled torpedo was invented in 1863 and launched from surface craft. The first submarine with a torpedo was Nordenfelt I built in 1884-1885, though it had been proposed earlier. By the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War all the large navies except the German had acquired submarines. Nevertheless, in 1904 all still defined the submarine as an experimental vessel and did not put it into operational use.[1]

There were no means to detect submerged U-boats, and attacks on them were limited at first to efforts to damage their periscopes with hammers.[2] The Royal Navy torpedo establishment, HMS Vernon, studied explosive grapnel sweeps; these sank four or five U-boats in the First World War.[3] A similar approach featured a string of 70 lb (32 kg) charges on a floating cable, fired electrically; an unimpressed Baron Mountevans considered any U-boat sunk by it deserved to be.[3]

Also tried were dropping 18.5 lb (8.4 kg) hand-thrown guncotton bombs.[4] The Lance Bomb was developed, also; this featured a 35–40 lb (16–18 kg) cone-shaped steel drum on a 5 ft (1.5 m) shaft, intended to be thrown at a submarine.[3] Firing Lyddite shells, or using trench mortars, was tried.[3] Use of nets to ensnare U-boats was also examined, as was a destroyer, HMS Starfish, fitted with a spar torpedo.[4] To attack at set depths, aircraft bombs were attached to lanyards which would trigger their charges; a similar idea was a 16 lb (7.3 kg) guncotton charge in a lanyarded can; two of these lashed together became known as the Depth Charge Type A.[5] Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B.[5] These were effective at a distance of around 20 ft (6.1 m).[5]

The best concept arose in a 1913 RN Torpedo School report, describing a device intended for countermining, a "dropping mine". At Admiral John Jellicoe's request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol (developed in 1914 by Thomas Firth & Sons of Sheffield) preset for 45 ft (14 m) firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb (520 kg), and effective at 100 ft (30 m), the "cruiser mine" was also a potential hazard to the dropping ship.[5]
World War I
An example of an anti-submarine net, once protecting Halifax Harbour, Canada.

During the First World War, submarines were a major threat. They operated in the Baltic, North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean as well as the North Atlantic. Previously they had been limited to relatively calm and protected waters. The vessels used to combat them were a range of small, fast surface ships using guns and good luck. They mainly relied on the fact a submarine of the day was often on the surface for a range of reasons, such as charging batteries or crossing long distances. The first approach to protect warships was chainlink nets strung from the sides of battleships, as defense against torpedoes. Nets were also deployed across the mouth of a harbour or naval base to stop submarines entering or to stop torpedoes of the Whitehead type fired against ships. British warships were fitted with a ram with which to sink submarines, and U-15 was thus sunk in August 1914.

RN in June 1915 began operational trials of the Type D depth charge, with a 300 lb (140 kg) charge of TNT (amatol, as TNT supplies became critical) and a hydrostatic pistol, firing at either 40 or 80 ft (12 or 24 m), and believed to be effective at a distance of 140 ft (43 m); the Type D*, with a 120 lb (54 kg) charge, was offered for smaller ships.[5]

In July 1915, the British Admiralty set up the Board of Invention and Research to evaluate suggestions from the public as well as carrying out their own investigations. Some 14,000 suggestions were received about combating submarines. In December 1916, the RN set up its own Anti-Submarine Division (from which came the term "Asdic") but relations with the BIR were poor. After 1917 most ASW work was carried out by ASD. In the U.S., a Naval Consulting Board was set up in 1915 to evaluate ideas. After American entry into the war in 1917, they encouraged work on submarine detection. The U.S. National Research Council, a civilian organization, brought in British and French experts on underwater sound to a meeting with their American counterparts in June 1917. In October 1918, there was a meeting in Paris on "supersonics", a term used for echo-ranging, but the technique was still in research by the end of the war.

The first recorded sinking of a submarine by depth charge was U-68, sunk by Q-ship HMS Farnborough off Kerry, Ireland 22 March 1916.[6] By early 1917, the Royal Navy had also developed indicator loops which consisted of long lengths of cables lain on the seabed to detect the magnetic field of submarines as they passed overhead. At this stage they were used in conjunction with controlled mines which could be detonated from a shore station once a 'swing' had been detected on the indicator loop galvanometer. Indicator loops used with controlled mining were known as 'guard loops'. By July 1917, depth charges had developed to the extent that settings of between 50–200 ft (15–61 m) were possible.[5] This design would remain mainly unchanged through the end of World War II.[5] While dipping hydrophones appeared before war's end, the trials were abandoned.[7]

Seaplanes and airships were also used to patrol for submarines. A number of successful attacks were made,[a] but the main value of air patrols was in driving the U-boat to submerge, rendering it virtually blind and immobile.[8]

However, the most effective anti-submarine measure was the introduction of escorted convoys, which reduced the loss of ships entering the German's War Zone around the British Isles from 25% to less than 1%.

To attack submerged boats a number of anti-submarine weapons were derived, including the sweep with a contact-fused explosive. Bombs were dropped by aircraft and depth charge attacks were made by ships. Prior to the introduction of dedicated depth charge throwers, charges were manually rolled off the stern of a ship. The Q-ship, a warship disguised as a merchantman, was used to attack surfaced U-boats while the R1 was the first ASW submarine. A major contribution was the interception of German submarine radio signals and breaking of their code by Room 40 of the Admiralty.

178 of the 360 U-boats were sunk during the war, from a variety of ASW methods:

Mines 58
Depth charges 30
Submarine torpedoes 20
Gunfire 20
Ramming 19
Unknown 19
Accidents 7
Sweeps 3
Other (including bombs) 2[9]

Inter-war period

This period saw the development of active sonar (ASDIC) and its integration into a complete weapons system by the British, as well as the introduction of radar. During the period, there was a great advance due to the introduction of electronics for amplifying, processing, and displaying signals. In particular, the "range recorder" was a major step that provided a memory of target position. Because the propellers of many submarines were extremely loud in the water[citation needed] (though it doesn't seem so from the surface), range recorders were able to gauge the distance from the U-boat by sound. This would allow mines or bombs around that area to be detonated. New materials for sound projectors were developed. Both the Royal Navy and the U.S. Navy fitted their destroyers with active sonars. In 1928, a small escort ship was designed and plans made to arm trawlers and to mass-produce ASDIC sets. Depth sounders were developed that allowed measurement by moving ships and an appreciation obtained of the properties of the ocean affecting sound propagation. The bathythermograph was invented in 1937, which was soon fitted to ASW ships.

There were few major advances in weapons. However, the performance of torpedoes continued to improve.
World War II
Battle of the Atlantic
Main article: Battle of the Atlantic (1939-1945)
A depth charge thrower being loaded, aboard corvette HMS Dianthus, 14 August 1942.
A Leigh Light fitted to a Liberator of Royal Air Force Coastal Command, 26 February 1944.
Hedgehog, a 24-barreled anti-submarine mortar, mounted on the forecastle of the destroyer HMS Westcott.
A Vought SB2U Vindicator from the USS Ranger flies anti-submarine patrol over Convoy WS12 en route to Cape Town, 27 November 1941.
The USS Mission Bay operated primarily as an ASW carrier in the Atlantic. She is shown in August, 1944 off the East Coast, wearing Measure 32 Design 4A camouflage. Note the Grumman F6F Hellcats on deck and the large SK air search radar antenna on the mast.

During the Second World War, the submarine menace revived, threatening the survival of island nations like Britain and Japan which were particularly vulnerable because of their dependence on imports of food, oil, and other vital war materials. Despite this vulnerability, little had been done to prepare sufficient anti-submarine forces or develop suitable new weapons. Other navies were similarly unprepared, even though every major navy had a large, modern submarine fleet, because all had fallen in the grip of Mahanian doctrine which held guerre de course could not win a war.

At the beginning of the war, most navies had few ideas how to combat submarines beyond locating them with sonar and then dropping depth charges on them. Sonar proved much less effective than expected, and was no use at all against submarines operating on the surface, as U-boats routinely did at night.[b] The Royal Navy had continued to develop indicator loops between the wars but this was a passive form of harbour defense that depended on detecting the magnetic field of submarines by the use of long lengths of cable lain on the floor of the harbour. Indicator loop technology was quickly developed further and deployed by the US Navy in 1942. By then there were dozens of loop stations around the world. Sonar was far more effective and loop technology died straight after the war.

The use and improvement of radar technology was one of the most important proponents in the fight against submarines. Locating submarines was the first step in being able to defend against and destroy them. Throughout the war, Allied radar technology was much better than their German counterparts. German U-Boats struggled to have proper radar detection capabilities and keep up with the successive generations of Allied airborne radar. The first generation of Allied airborne radar used a 1.7 meter wavelength and had a limited range. By the second half of 1942 the "Metox" radar detector was used by U-boats to give some warning from airborne attack. In 1943 the Allies began to deploy aircraft equipped with new cavity magnetron-based 10-centimeter wavelength radar (ASV III), which was undetectable by "Metox", in sufficient numbers to yield good results. Eventually the "Naxos" radar detector was fielded that could detect 10-cm wavelength radar, but it had a very short range and only gave a U-Boat limited time to dive.[10] From 1943-1945 radar equipped aircraft would account for the bulk of Allied kills against U-Boats.[11] Allied anti-submarine tactics developed to defend convoys (the Royal Navy's preferred method), aggressively hunt down U-boats (the U.S. Navy approach), and to divert vulnerable or valuable ships away from known U-boat concentrations.

During the Second World War, the Allies developed a huge range of new technologies, weapons and tactics to counter the submarine danger. These included:

Vessels

Allocating ships to convoys according to speed, so faster ships were less exposed.
Adjusting the convoy cycle. Using operations research techniques, analysis of convoy losses over the first three years of the war showed that the overall size of a convoy was less important than the size of its escorting force. Therefore, escorts could better protect a few large convoys than many small ones.
Huge construction programmes to mass-produce the small warships needed for convoy defense, such as corvettes, frigates, and destroyer escorts. These were more economical than using destroyers, which were needed for fleet duties. Corvettes were small enough to be built in merchant shipyards and used triple expansion engines. They could be built without using up scarce turbine engines and reduction gears, thus not interfering with larger warship production.
Ships that could carry aircraft, such as the CAM ships, the merchant aircraft carrier, and eventually the purpose-built escort carriers.
Support groups of escort ships that could be sent to reinforce the defense of convoys under attack. Free from the obligation to remain with the convoys, support groups could continue hunting a submerged submarine until its batteries and air supplies were exhausted and it was forced to surface.
Hunter-killer groups, whose job was to actively seek out enemy submarines, as opposed to waiting for the convoy to come under attack. Later hunter-killer groups were centered around escort carriers.
Huge construction programmes to mass-produce the transports and replace their losses, such as the American Liberty Ships. Once shipbuilding had ramped up to full efficiency, transports could be built faster than U-boats could sink them, playing a crucial role in the Allies winning the "Tonnage war".

Aircraft

Air raids on the German U-boat pens at Brest and La Rochelle.
Long-range aircraft patrols to close the Mid-Atlantic gap.
Escort carriers to provide the convoy with air cover, as well as close the mid-Atlantic gap.
High frequency direction finding (HF/DF), including shipborne sets, to pinpoint the location of an enemy submarine from its radio transmissions.
The introduction of seaborne radar which could enable the detection of surfaced U-boats.
Airborne radar.
The Leigh light airborne searchlight, in conjunction with airborne radar to surprise and attack enemy submarines on the surface at night.
Magnetic anomaly detection
Diesel exhaust sniffers
Sonobuoys

Weaponry

Depth Charges, the most used weapon, were improved during the course of the war. Starting with WW1 vintage 300-pound (140 kg) depth charges, a 600-pound (270 kg) version was developed. Torpex explosive, which is a 50% more powerful explosive than TNT, was introduced in 1943. Y-guns and K-guns were used to throw depth charges to the side of the escort vessel, augmenting the charges rolled off the stern and letting the escort vessel lay a pattern of depth charges
The development of forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons such as Hedgehog and the Squid. This allowed the escort vessel to stay in contact with the submarine during an attack.
The FIDO (Mk 24 'mine') air-dropped homing torpedo.
When the German Navy developed an acoustic homing torpedo, torpedo countermeasures such as the Foxer acoustic decoy were deployed.

Intelligence

One of the best kept Allied secrets was the breaking of enemy codes including some of the German Naval Enigma codes (information gathered this way was dubbed Ultra) at Bletchley Park in England. This enabled the tracking of U-boat packs to allow convoy re-routings; whenever the Germans changed their codes (and when they added a fourth rotor to the Enigma machines in 1943), convoy losses rose significantly. By the end of the war, the Allies were regularly breaking and reading German naval codes.
To prevent the Germans from guessing that Enigma had been cracked, the British planted a false story about a special infrared camera being used to locate U-boats. The British were subsequently delighted to learn that the Germans responded by developing a special paint for submarines that exactly duplicated the optical properties of seawater.

Tactics

Many different aircraft from airships to four-engined sea- and land-planes were used. Some of the more successful were the Lockheed Ventura, PBY (Catalina or Canso, in British service), Consolidated B-24 Liberator (VLR Liberator, in British service), Short Sunderland, and Vickers Wellington. As more patrol planes became equipped with radar, U-Boats began to be surprised at night by aircraft attacks. U-Boats were not defenseless, since their deck guns were a very good anti-aircraft weapon. They claimed 212 Allied aircraft shot down for the loss of 168 U-boats to air attack. The German naval command struggled to find a solution to the aircraft attacks. 'U-Flak' submarines, equipped with extra anti-aircraft weapons, were tried unsuccessfully. At one point in the war, there was even a 'shoot back order' requiring U-boats to stay on the surface and fight back, in the absence of any other option. Some commanders started charging batteries during the day to gain more warning from air attack, and perhaps gain time to submerge. One solution was the snorkel, which allowed a U-boat to stay submerged and still charge its batteries. A snorkel made a U-boat more survivable and losses to aircraft went down. However the low snorkeling speeds of 5 to 6 knots (9.3–11.1 km/h; 5.8–6.9 mph) greatly limited the mobility of the U-Boats.[12]

The provision of air cover was essential. The Germans at the time had been using their Focke-Wulf Fw 200 "Condor" long range aircraft to attack shipping and provide reconnaissance for U-boats, and most of their sorties occurred outside the reach of existing land-based aircraft that the Allies had; this was dubbed the Mid-Atlantic gap. At first, the British developed temporary solutions such as CAM ships and merchant aircraft carriers. These were superseded by mass-produced, relatively cheap escort carriers built by the United States and operated by the US Navy and Royal Navy. There was also the introduction of long-ranged patrol aircraft. Many U-boats feared aircraft, as the mere presence would often force them to dive, disrupting their patrols and attack runs.

The Americans favored aggressive hunter-killer tactics using escort carriers on search and destroy patrols, whereas the British preferred to use their escort carriers to defend the convoys directly. The American view was that defending convoys did little to reduce or contain U-boat numbers, while the British were constrained by having to fight the battle of the Atlantic alone for the early part of the war with very limited resources. There were no spare escorts for extensive hunts, and it was only important to neutralize the U-boats which were found in the vicinity of convoys. The survival of convoys was critical, and if a hunt missed its target a convoy of strategic importance could be lost. The British also reasoned that since submarines sought convoys, convoys would be a good place to find submarines.

Once America joined the war, the different tactics were complementary, both suppressing the effectiveness of and destroying U-boats. The increase in Allied naval strength allowed both convoy defense and hunter-killer groups to be deployed, and this was reflected in the massive increase in U-boat kills in the latter part of the war. The British developments of centimetric radar and the Leigh Light, as well as increased numbers of escorts, reached the point of being able to support U-boat hunting towards the end of the war, while earlier on, the advantage was definitely on the side of the submarine. Commanders such as F. J. "Johnnie" Walker of the Royal Navy were able to develop integrated tactics which made the deployment of hunter-killer groups a practical proposition. Walker developed a creeping attack technique, where one destroyer would track the U-boat while another attacked. Often U-boats would turn and increase speed to spoil the depth charge attack, as the escort would lose sonar contact as it steamed over the submarine. With the new tactic, one escort vessel would attack while another would track the target. Any course or depth change could be relayed to the attacking destroyer. Once a U-boat was caught, it was very difficult to escape. Since Hunter-Killer groups were not limited to convoy escort, they could continue an attack until a U-Boat was destroyed or had to surface from damage or lack of air.

The earliest recorded sinking of one submarine by another while both were submerged occurred in 1945 when HMS Venturer torpedoed U-864 off the coast of Norway. The captain of Venturer tracked U-864 on hydrophones for several hours and manually calculated a three-dimensional firing solution before launching four torpedoes.
Mediterranean

Italian and German submarines operated in the Mediterranean on the Axis side while French and British submarines operated on the side of the Allies. The German Navy sent 62 U-Boats to the Mediterranean; all were lost in combat or scuttled. German subs first had to pass through the highly defended Straits of Gibraltar, where 9 were sunk, and a similar number damaged so severely they had to limp back to base. The Mediterranean is calmer than the Atlantic, which made escape for U-Boats more difficult and was ringed with Allied air bases. Similar ASW methods were used as in the Atlantic but an additional menace was the use by Italians of midget submarines.

Operating under the same clear-water conditions in the Mediterranean - such that British submarines were painted dark blue on their upper surfaces to make them less visible from the air when submerged at periscope depth - the Royal Navy, mostly operating from Malta, lost 41 submarines to the opposing German and Italian forces, including HMS Upholder and HMS Perseus.
Pacific Theatre
Main articles: World War II, Pacific War, and Submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy

Japanese submarines pioneered many innovations, being some of the largest and longest range vessels of their type and were armed with the Type 95 torpedo. However, they ended up having little impact, especially in the latter half of the war. Instead of commerce raiding like their U-boat counterparts, they followed the Mahanian doctrine, serving in offensive roles against warships, which were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. In the early part of the Pacific War, Japanese subs scored several tactical victories, including two successful torpedo strikes on the US fleet carrier USS Wasp, the latter of which was sunk abandoned and scuttled as a result of the attack.[13]

Once the US was able to ramp up construction of destroyers and destroyer escorts, as well as bringing over highly effective anti-submarine techniques learned from the British from experiences in the Battle of the Atlantic, they would take a significant toll on Japanese submarines, which tended to be slower and could not dive as deep as their German counterparts. Japanese submarines, in particular, never menaced the Allied merchant convoys and strategic shipping lanes to any degree that German U-boats did. One major advantages the Allies had was the breaking of the Japanese "Purple" code by the US, so allowing friendly ships to be diverted from Japanese submarines and allowing Allied submarines to intercept Japanese forces.

In 1942 and early 1943, US submarines posed little threat to Japanese ships, whether warships or merchant ships. They were initially hampered by poor torpedoes, which often failed to detonate on impact, ran too deep, or even ran wild. As the US submarine menace was slight in the beginning, Japanese commanders became complacent and as a result did not invest heavily into ASW measures or upgrade their convoy protection to any degree to what the Allies in the Atlantic did. Often encouraged by the Japanese not placing a high priority on the Allied submarine threat, US skippers were relatively complacent and docile compared to their German counterparts, who understood the "life and death" urgency in the Atlantic.

However, US Vice Admiral Charles A. Lockwood pressured the ordnance department to replace the faulty torpedoes; famously when they initially ignored his complaints, he ran his own tests to prove the torpedoes' unreliability. He also cleaned out the "deadwood", replacing many cautious or unproductive submarine skippers with younger (somewhat) and more aggressive commanders. As a result, in the latter half of 1943, US subs were suddenly sinking Japanese ships at a dramatically higher rate, scoring their share of key warship kills and accounting for almost half of the Japanese merchant fleet. Japan's naval command was caught off guard; Japan had neither the anti-submarine technology or doctrine, nor the production capability to withstand a tonnage war of attrition, nor did she develop the organizations needed (unlike the Allies in the Atlantic).

Japanese antisubmarine forces consisted mainly of their destroyers, with sonar and depth charges. However, Japanese destroyer design, tactics, training, and doctrine emphasized surface nightfighting and torpedo delivery (necessary for fleet operations) over anti-submarine duties. By the time Japan finally developed a destroyer escort, which was more economical and better suited to convoy protection, it was too late; coupled to incompetent doctrine and organization,[c] it could have had little effect in any case. Late in the war, the Japanese Army and Navy used Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD) gear in aircraft to locate shallow submerged submarines. The Japanese Army also developed two small aircraft carriers and Ka-1 autogyro aircraft for use in an antisubmarine warfare role, while the Navy developed and introduced the Kyushu Q1W anti-submarine bomber into service in 1945.

The Japanese depth charge attacks by its surface forces initially proved fairly unsuccessful against U.S. fleet submarines. Unless caught in shallow water, a U.S. submarine commander could normally escape destruction, sometimes using temperature gradients (thermoclines). Additionally, IJN doctrine emphasized fleet action, not convoy protection, so the best ships and crews went elsewhere.[14] Moreover, during the first part of the war, the Japanese tended to set their depth charges too shallow, unaware U.S. submarines could dive below 150 feet (45m). Unfortunately, this deficiency was revealed in a June 1943 press conference held by U.S. Congressman Andrew J. May, and soon enemy depth charges were set to explode as deep as 250 feet (76m). Vice Admiral Charles A. Lockwood, COMSUBPAC, later estimated May's revelation cost the navy as many as ten submarines and 800 crewmen.[15][16]

Much later in the war, active and passive sonobuoys were developed for aircraft use, together with MAD devices. Toward the end of the war, the Allies developed better forward-throwing weapons, such as Mousetrap and Squid, in the face of new, much better German submarines, such as the Type XVII and Type XXI.

British and Dutch submarines also operated in the Pacific, mainly against coastal shipping.
Post-war

In the immediate postwar period, the innovations of the late war U-boats were quickly adopted by the major navies. Both the United Kingdom and The United States studied the German Type XXI and used the information to modify WW2 fleet boats, the USA with the GUPPY program and the UK with the Overseas Patrol Submarines Project.[17] The Soviets launched new submarines patterned on Type XXIs, the Whiskey and Zulu classes. Britain also tested hydrogen peroxide fuels in Meteorite, Excalibur, and Explorer, with less success.

To deal with these more capable submarines new ASW weapons were essential. This new generation of diesel electric submarine, like the Type XXI before it, had no deck gun and a streamlined hull tower for greater underwater speed, as well as more storage battery capacity than a comparable WW2 submarine; in addition, they recharged their batteries using a snorkel and could complete a patrol without surfacing.[18] This led to the introduction of longer-ranged forward-throwing weapons, such as Weapon Alpha, Limbo, RBU-6000, and of improved homing torpedoes. Nuclear submarines, even faster still, and without the need to snorkel to recharge batteries, posed an even greater threat; in particular, shipborne helicopters (recalling the blimps of World War I)[19] have emerged as essential anti-submarine platforms. A number of torpedo carrying missiles such as ASROC and Ikara were developed, combining ahead-throwing capability (or longer-range delivery) with torpedo homing.

Since the introduction of submarines capable of carrying ballistic missiles, great efforts have been made to counter the threat they pose; here, maritime patrol aircraft (as in World War II) and helicopters have had a large role. The use of nuclear propulsion and streamlined hulls has resulted in submarines with high speed capability and increased maneuverability, as well as low "indiscretion rates" when a submarine is exposed on the surface. This has required changes both to the sensors and weapons used for ASW. Because nuclear submarines were noisy, there was an emphasis on passive sonar detection. The torpedo became the main weapon (though nuclear depth charges were developed). The mine continued to be an important ASW weapon.

In some areas of the ocean, where land forms natural barriers, long strings of sonobuoys, deployed from surface ships or dropped from aircraft, can monitor maritime passages for extended periods. Bottom mounted hydrophones can also be used, with land based processing. A system like this SOSUS was deployed by the USA in the GIUK gap and other strategically important places.

Airborne ASW forces developed better bombs and depth charges, while for ships and submarines a range of towed sonar devices were developed to overcome the problem of ship-mounting. Helicopters can fly courses offset from the ships and transmit sonar information to their combat information centres. They can also drop sonobuoys and launch homing torpedoes to positions many miles away from the ships actually monitoring the enemy submarine. Submerged submarines are generally blind to the actions of a patrolling aircraft until it uses active sonar or fires a weapon, and the aircraft's speed allows it to maintain a fast search pattern around the suspected contact.

Increasingly anti-submarine submarines, called attack submarines or hunter-killers, became capable of destroying, particularly, ballistic missile submarines. Initially these were very quiet diesel-electric propelled vessels but they are more likely to be nuclear-powered these days. The development of these was strongly influenced by the duel between HMS Venturer and U-864.[citation needed]

A significant detection aid that has continued in service is the Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD), a passive device. First used in World War II, MAD uses the Earth's magnetosphere as a standard, detecting anomalies caused by large metallic vessels, such as submarines. Modern MAD arrays are usually contained in a long tail boom (fixed-wing aircraft) or an aerodynamic housing carried on a deployable tow line (helicopters). Keeping the sensor away from the plane's engines and avionics helps eliminate interference from the carrying platform.

At one time, reliance was placed on electronic warfare detection devices exploiting the submarine's need to perform radar sweeps and transmit responses to radio messages from home port. As frequency surveillance and direction finding became more sophisticated, these devices enjoyed some success. However, submariners soon learned not to rely on such transmitters in dangerous waters. Home bases can then use extremely low frequency radio signals, able to penetrate the ocean's surface, to reach submarines wherever they might be.
Modern warfare
The Royal Navy Type 23 frigate is an anti-submarine vessel.

The military submarine is still a threat, so ASW remains a key to obtaining sea control. Neutralizing the SSBN has been a key driver and this still remains. However, non-nuclear-powered submarines have become increasingly important. Though the diesel-electric submarine continues to dominate in numbers, several alternative technologies now exist to enhance the endurance of small submarines. Previously the emphasis had been largely on deep water operation but this has now switched to littoral operation where ASW is generally more difficult.
Anti-submarine warfare technologies

There are a large number of technologies used in modern anti-submarine warfare:

Sensors

Acoustics particularly in active and passive sonar, sonobuoys, and fixed hydrophones aid in the detection of radiated noise. Sonar can be mounted on the hull or in a towed array.
Pyrotechnics in the use of markers, flares and explosive devices
Searchlights
Radar, for surfaced parts
Hydrodynamic pressure wave (wake) detection
Laser detection and ranging of surfaced vessels; airborne and satellite
Electronic countermeasures and acoustic countermeasures such as noise and bubble makers
Passive acoustic countermeasures such as concealment and design of sound-absorbing materials to coat reflecting underwater surfaces
Magnetic anomaly detection (MAD)
Active and (more commonly) passive infra-red detection of surfaced parts.

An MH-60R conducts an airborne low frequency sonar (ALFS) operation during testing and evaluation.

In modern times forward looking infrared (FLIR) detectors have been used to track the large plumes of heat that fast nuclear-powered submarines leave while rising to the surface. FLIR devices are also used to see periscopes or snorkels at night whenever a submariner might be incautious enough to probe the surface.

The active sonar used in such operations is often of "mid-frequency", approximately 3.5 kHz. Because of the quietening of submarines, resulting in shorter passive detection ranges, there has been interest in low frequency active for ocean surveillance. However, there have been protests about the use of medium and low frequency high-powered active sonar because of its effects on whales. Others argue the high power level of some LFA (Low Frequency Active) sonars is actually detrimental to sonar performance in that such sonars are reverberation limited.
Weapons

B57 nuclear bomb
Naval Mines
Torpedoes (acoustic or wake homing, wire-guided)
Depth charges
Rockets
Mk 101 Lulu
Anti-submarine missiles
Anti-submarine mortar
Anti-submarine net
Nuclear depth bomb
Ramming
WE.177

Platforms

Satellites have been used to image the sea surface using optical and radar techniques. Fixed-wing aircraft, such as the P-3 Orion & Tu-142 provide both a sensor and weapons platform similar to some helicopters like the SH-60 Seahawk, with sonobuoys and/or dipping sonars as well as aerial torpedoes. In other cases the helicopter has been used solely for sensing and rocket delivered torpedoes used as the weapon. Surface ships continue to be a main ASW platform because of their endurance, now having towed array sonars. Submarines are the main ASW platform because of their ability to change depth and their quietness, which aids detection.

In early 2010 DARPA began funding the ACTUV programme to develop a semi-autonomous oceangoing unmanned naval vessel.

Today some nations have seabed listening devices capable of tracking submarines. It is possible to detect man-made marine noises across the southern Indian Ocean from South Africa to New Zealand.[citation needed] Some of the SOSUS arrays have been turned over to civilian use and are now used for marine research.
As we sail deeper into the 21st century, Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) will remain a core mission area for the United States Navy. Execution of that vital mission will be critical to protecting the strategic speed and operational agility of joint and coalition forces across the largest maneuver space in the world – the sea. The ASW capabilities we possess today when confronting potential enemies are based largely on skills developed during the Cold War. To sustain our operational advantage, we must develop additional skills, implement them in an innovative manner, and rapidly leverage advanced technologies to swiftly defeat enemies wherever they may be found. This 21st Century ASW Concept of Operations (CONOPs) is intended to guide the development of a comprehensive ASW Master Plan that will be forthcoming shortly. It details operational principles and force attributes that we seek to develop in the years ahead. Our goal in the near term is to maximize our undersea advantage anywhere in the world by leveraging advances in acoustic processing, data collection and sharing, communications, collaborative real-time planning, reachback support, rapid maneuver, and precision engagement. These tactical advantages will allow friendly forces to take the fight to the enemy. In the far-term, we will build on these advances to fully leverage an integrated network of sensors coupled to stand-off weapons, thereby maximizing our advantages in persistence, speed, and precision as the conceptual framework for our future. 222111ssstttCCCEEENNNTTTUUURRRYYYOOOPPPEEERRRAAATTTIIINNNGGGEEENNNVVVIIIRRROOONNNMMMEEENNNTTTThe 21st century environment is one of increasing challenges, due to the littoral environment in which we operate and advanced technologies that are proliferating around the world. Operations in the future will be centered on dominating near-land combat, rapidly achieving area control despite difficult sound propagation profiles and dense surface traffic. The operating environment will be cluttered and chaotic, and defeating stealthy enemies will be an exceptional challenge.
The spread of new technologies will dramatically affect operational planning and execution by both friends and adversaries. Future enemies will pose asymmetric threats by employing mines, missiles, and submarines that benefit from technological advances in enhanced propulsion, quieting techniques, and weapons technologies. Adversary capabilities may also include Weapons of Mass Destruction, which will threaten friendly nations, fixed military bases, and land-based forces. When facing such enemies, our advantage lies in Sea Basing that employs Sea Shield and Sea Strike capabilities to ensure sea supremacy by US and allied forces. AAASSSWWW&&&SSSEEEAAAPPPOOOWWWEEERRR222111:::NNNeeeaaarrr-ttteeerrrmmmaaannndddFFFaaarrr-ttteeerrrmmmTo achieve victory in this environment and against such adversaries, we are pursuing a wide range of initiatives in the areas of doctrine, organization, training, materiel, logistics, personnel, and facilities development. To accelerate near-term successes, we have created the Fleet Anti-Submarine Warfare Command. It will expand the efforts of TASK FORCE ASW, aimed at delivering enhanced ASW proficiency and capability to the fleet. These efforts are focused on compressing the detect-to-engage sequence by employing networked data, collaborative planning, and rapid engagement to quickly destroy enemy forces. Our long-term transformation strategy will exploit these tactical advances to achieve two key operational level objectives:•Hold Enemy Forces at Risk: We will deny enemy submarines an offensive capability by maintaining the ability to destroy them, if and when required, at a time and place of our choosing. •Secure Friendly Maneuver Area: We will drive away or destroy enemy submarines, thereby protecting maritime operating areas. We will protect US and coalition naval combatants, support ships, and merchant shipping from undersea attack within and enroute to vital operating areas. Fundamental to holding enemy forces at risk will be the dynamic application of Sea Strike and Sea Shield capabilities for persistent intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance; time-sensitive strike; information operations; and covert strike. Simultaneously, battlespace superiority will be created as linked sensors, platforms, and kill vehicles consolidate area control, allowing joint forces to “climb into the ring” and stay there. Sea Basing will host ASW forces, protecting
3FORCE ATTRIBUTES•PERSISTENCE •PERVASIVE AWARENESS •SPEED & OPERATIONAL AGILITY •TECHNOLOGICAL AGILITY allied assets while minimizing land-based support requirements. All of these efforts will be coordinated by FORCEnet, which integrates warriors, sensors, platforms and weapons into a networked, distributed combat force applicable across all levels of ASW. NETW ORKED, DISTRIBUTED COM BAT FORCEHOLD AT RISKSEC URE M ANEUVER AREAAdvanced technologies employed in support of friendly forces will include exploiting the rapidly increasing computing power of sensors and networks. When coupled to the operational persistence afforded by Sea Basing, such systems will provide pervasive awareness by way of hundreds, even thousands, of small sensing and computing devices that permeate the operating environment, yielding unprecedented situational awareness and highly detailed pictures of the battlespace. This tremendous fidelity will enable enhanced precision and timeliness in weapons delivery that will translate into increased tactical speed and operational agility as principal characteristics of our CONOPS.To succeed in this complex operating environment, we will also continuously improve the manner in which we field new capabilities for our force. Agility must extend beyond the battlespace, all the way back to the systems commands and industry, which will continuously implement effective and rapid technology insertion processes. This technological agility will bring steady improvements to programs by way of open architecture enhancements, advanced processing and computing, human systems integration, and rapid technology insertion.
4DEVELOPMENT PRIORITIESSensor over weapon, Network over platformFFFOOORRRGGGIIINNNGGGTTTHHHEEERRREEEVVVOOOLLLUUUTTTIIIOOONNN:::AAASSSWWWIIINNNTTTHHHEEE222111SSSTTTCCCEEENNNTTTUUURRRYYYPervasive awareness of the battlespace will lie at the heart of 21st century ASW effectiveness, allowing us to apply rapid maneuver and precise firepower. Limitations in current weapons reach and sensor integration drives many of today’s ASW operations toward “force on force” engagements that place our forces at risk. Such engagements have proven effective in the past, but as we look to the future our intent is to apply network centric warfare to dominate the environment by using unmanned vehicles, common operating pictures, and standoff precision weapons. The future will leverage our asymmetric advantages of advanced technology and highly skilled professional Sailors. As we develop these capabilities, the networking of self-aware, autonomous sensor fields coupled with manned and unmanned kill vehicles will shift ASW from “platform-intensive” to “sensor-rich” operations. Sensors and networks will enable effective employment of weapons and platforms to a greater degree than ever before. In many cases, the sensors, command & control (C2) devices, and weapons that provide pervasive awareness and precise firepower will not exist in the same platform. For example, attack submarines that now host sensors and weapons in a single platform will, in the future, also serve as C2 and logistical support bases for off-ship sensors and kill vehicles. Technological dispersal will be mirrored in decentralized C2 structures that allow rapid, decisive operations. Naval forces are well prepared for such operations because decentralized execution is at the heart of our culture and leadership. This tradition of independent action will allow us to seize and exploit fleeting opportunities, thereby compressing the “kill chain” of locating, identifying, tracking, and engaging targets. In this manner, we will greatly increase the rate at which enemy submarines are destroyed.
To bring 21st century ASW to fruition, we will focus on developing the following operational principles and associated capabilities:zBattlespace Preparation & Monitoring. Pervasive awareness of the undersea environment begins with comprehensive operational and technical intelligence to include understanding enemy doctrine, tactics, capabilities, and vulnerabilities. This awareness is amplified by studying the operating environment, to include historical conditions, predicted dynamics, and the in-situ characteristics. zPersistent Detection & Cueing. The networking of rapidly deployable and fixed surveillance systems will maximize enemy detections, tracking, and engagement opportunities.zCombined Arms Prosecution. Tracking and engagement of enemy submarines will be executed through coordinated and integrated Joint Force ASW operations, enhanced by common operational and tactical pictures that permit precise targeting and weapons employment.zHigh Volume Search & Kill Rates. Agile technology development will maximize search and kill rates, resulting in greater numbers of enemy submarines destroyed per unit of time. These advancements will be achieved by the combined employment of large area search systems, highly accurate localization techniques, and standoff, precise attack systems. zNon-Traditional Methods. New technologies will yield enhanced operational agility by employing miniaturized sensors, weapons, and command and control systems, as well as reconfigurable manned and unmanned vehicles. Such non-traditional methods will be employed from pre to post-hostility operations, generating effects that range from influencing threat behavior to destroying enemy forces. zDefense-in-Depth. Integrated self-defense capabilities enabled by networked sensors, weapons, and platforms will greatly improve force countermeasures, providing unprecedented levels of force protection.The objective of 21st century ASW operations is clear: to secure the battlespace from undersea threats by swiftly destroying enemy submarines. To achieve that end, we will maximize our strengths and exploit the vulnerabilities of our enemy. We will build upon the foundation of our past and move toward a futurewhere we achieve information superiority and effects-based capabilities that decisively alter the deterrence and warfighting calculus in favor of the United States, our allies, and coalition partners.
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